Environmental Transformation of Ndop, Cameroon (1998-2022): A Land Cover Change Analysis

Introduction

The Ndop plain, situated in the North West region of Cameroon, has undergone significant environmental transformation over recent decades. This study analyzes land cover changes between 1998 and 2022 using satellite imagery to document the scope of these changes, evaluate their environmental implications, and project future scenarios if current trends continue. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for informed policy development and sustainable resource management in this ecologically important region. The Ndop plain, which includes the Bamendjing Reservoir and surrounding highlands, represents a microcosm of environmental challenges facing many rapidly developing areas across sub-Saharan Africa, where urbanization, agricultural expansion, and resource extraction compete with ecological preservation.

Literature Review

Land use and land cover change (LULCC) studies have become essential tools for monitoring environmental transformation in Africa (Lambin et al., 2003). Several studies have documented accelerated rates of deforestation and urbanization across the Central African region, particularly in Cameroon (Tegegne et al., 2016). The conversion of natural landscapes to anthropogenic land uses has been identified as a primary driver of biodiversity loss, climate vulnerability, and resource degradation (Foley et al., 2005).

In the North West region of Cameroon specifically, previous research has highlighted the vulnerability of forest ecosystems to human encroachment, with Duveiller et al. (2008) documenting forest cover decline of approximately 0.9% annually from 1990-2005 in parts of the Cameroon highlands. Urbanization trends in secondary cities of Cameroon, including those in the North West region, have shown exponential growth patterns since the late 1990s (Fombe & Balgah, 2010). However, detailed temporal analyses of land cover changes in the Ndop plain specifically remain limited in the scientific literature, highlighting the importance of this assessment.

Methodology

This analysis utilized remotely sensed data from Landsat satellites to examine land cover changes in the Ndop region. The 1998 data was sourced from Landsat 5 Thematic Mapper (TM), while the 2022 data came from Landsat 8 Operational Land Imager (OLI). Both datasets were classified into six primary land cover categories: built-up area, water body, bare soil, crops, forest, and clouds (present only in the 1998 image). The classification system follows standard land cover categorization procedures established by Anderson et al. (1976) and refined for tropical landscapes by Mayaux et al. (2004).

Results and Analysis

1998 Land Cover Description

The 1998 land cover map reveals a landscape dominated by natural and agricultural features. The distribution of land cover types shows:

• Bare soil (orange): Predominant in the central and northern portions of the study area
• Forest (dark green): Significant patches distributed throughout the landscape, particularly in the western regions
• Croplands (bright green): Distributed in a mosaic pattern, indicating small-scale agriculture
• Water body (blue): A substantial reservoir (Bamendjing) in the southeastern portion
• Built-up areas (light pink): Limited in extent, suggesting minimal urbanization
• Clouds (pale yellow): Present in the southwestern portion, creating a data gap

The overall landscape pattern indicates a rural, agriculturally active region with substantial natural vegetation cover remaining. The fragmentation of forest patches suggests that human modification of the landscape was already underway, but large tracts of natural vegetation persisted.

2022 Land Cover Description

The 2022 land cover classification demonstrates profound changes:

• Built-up areas (light pink): Now the dominant land cover class, having expanded dramatically across the region.
• Croplands (bright green): More fragmented and reduced in overall extent.
• Forest (dark green): Significantly diminished, with only scattered patches remaining.
• Water body (blue): The Bamendjing Reservoir remains similar in size but shows encroachment along its margins.
• Bare soil (orange): Reduced in extent, largely converted to built-up areas

The dramatic increase in built-up areas represents the most significant change, indicating rapid urbanization and infrastructure development throughout the region.

Quantitative Change Assessment

While pixel-by-pixel quantification was not performed for this analysis, visual assessment indicates the following approximate changes:

1. Built-up areas: Increased from approximately 10-15% coverage in 1998 to 50-60% in 2022.
2. Forest cover: Decreased from approximately 20-25% coverage to 5-10%.
3. Croplands: Decreased from approximately 30-35% to 20-25%.
4. Bare soil: Decreased from approximately 25-30% to 10-15%.
5. Water body: Remained relatively stable at approximately 5% of the study area.

These changes reflect a fundamental transformation from a predominantly rural, agricultural landscape with substantial natural vegetation to a heavily urbanized region with diminished natural cover.

Environmental Implications

The observed changes have numerous environmental implications:

1. Biodiversity impacts: The severe reduction in forest cover represents a significant loss of habitat for flora and fauna. The Cameroon highlands, which include the Ndop plain, are known for their high levels of endemic biodiversity (Bergl et al., 2007), making this loss particularly concerning.
2. Hydrological alterations: The conversion of vegetated surfaces to impervious built-up areas fundamentally alters the hydrological cycle. Reduced infiltration and increased runoff typically lead to more severe flooding during rain events and reduced groundwater recharge (Douglas, 2006).
3. Soil degradation: Urbanization processes typically involve soil sealing and compaction, leading to permanent loss of soil functionality. Surrounding agricultural areas often experience increased erosion pressure as natural vegetation buffers are removed (Lal, 2001).
4. Microclimate modifications: The replacement of vegetation with built structures and surfaces creates urban heat island effects, potentially raising local temperatures by 2-4°C compared to surrounding rural areas (Oke, 1982).
5. Carbon cycle impacts: The loss of forest biomass represents both a direct emission of carbon dioxide and a reduction in future carbon sequestration capacity (Houghton, 2003).
6. Ecosystem service degradation: Beyond specific impacts, the overall capacity of the landscape to provide ecosystem services such as water purification, pollination, and natural pest control has likely diminished substantially.

Future Projections

If current trends continue, several scenarios are likely to emerge in the Ndop region:

1. Complete urbanization: Within another 10-15 years, the region could experience nearly complete conversion to urban and peri-urban land uses, with only protected areas or the most inaccessible terrain retaining natural vegetation.
2. Water resource challenges: The Bamendjing Reservoir and associated waterways will likely face increasing pressure from pollution, sedimentation, and demand for water resources. Water scarcity during dry seasons may become more pronounced as groundwater recharge diminishes.
3. Agricultural productivity concerns: Remaining agricultural lands may experience decreased productivity due to soil degradation, altered microclimates, and loss of ecosystem services such as pollination.
4. Increased climate vulnerability: The altered landscape, with reduced vegetation cover and increased impervious surfaces, will likely be more vulnerable to climate change impacts, including more severe flooding during increasingly intense precipitation events and greater heat stress during hot periods.
5. Socioeconomic transitions: The shift from agricultural to urban livelihoods will continue, potentially creating economic opportunities but also challenges related to urban infrastructure provision, food security, and social cohesion.

Recommendations

Based on the observed changes and projected future scenarios, several recommendations emerge for sustainable management of the Ndop region:

1. Comprehensive land use planning: Implement and enforce integrated land use planning that designates conservation zones, agricultural preservation areas, and appropriate development corridors.
2. Forest restoration initiatives: Establish targeted reforestation programs focusing on riparian corridors, steep slopes, and ecological connectivity between remaining forest fragments.
3. Green infrastructure development: Incorporate nature-based solutions within urban areas, including urban forests, bioswales, and green roofs to mitigate flooding, reduce heat island effects, and improve quality of life.
4. Watershed management: Create and enforce buffer zones around the Bamendjing Reservoir and tributary waterways to protect water quality and riparian ecosystems.
5. Sustainable agricultural intensification: Support increased productivity on existing agricultural lands through sustainable intensification rather than expansion into new areas.
6. Climate-resilient development: Ensure all new infrastructure and development incorporates climate resilience principles, including adequate drainage systems, heat-resistant design, and reduced energy demands.
7. Environmental monitoring: Establish systematic monitoring of environmental indicators, including water quality, forest cover, and urban growth patterns to inform adaptive management.
8. Community-based natural resource management: Engage local communities in conservation and restoration activities, recognizing traditional ecological knowledge and ensuring equitable benefit sharing.

Conclusion

The dramatic transformation of the Ndop plain from 1998 to 2022 exemplifies the rapid environmental changes occurring across many developing regions. The conversion from a predominantly rural, agricultural landscape with substantial natural vegetation to a heavily urbanized environment has profound implications for biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human well-being. This case study highlights the urgent need for integrated approaches to landscape management that can balance development imperatives with environmental sustainability.

The pace and scale of change observed in Ndop should serve as both a warning and a call to action for similar regions across Cameroon and beyond. While urbanization and development represent important socioeconomic transitions, their environmental costs must be recognized and mitigated through thoughtful planning and policy implementation. The future of the Ndop region, and similar landscapes throughout the tropics, depends on finding sustainable pathways that preserve critical ecological functions while meeting human needs.

References

Anderson, J.R., Hardy, E.E., Roach, J.T., & Witmer, R.E. (1976). A land use and land cover classification system for use with remote sensor data. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 964.

Bergl, R.A., Oates, J.F., & Fotso, R. (2007). Distribution and protected area coverage of endemic taxa in West Africa's Biafran forests and highlands. Biological Conservation, 134(2), 195-208.

Douglas, I. (2006). Peri-urban ecosystems and societies: transitional zones and contrasting values. In D. McGregor, D. Simon, & D. Thompson (Eds.), The Peri-Urban Interface: Approaches to Sustainable Natural and Human Resource Use (pp. 18-29).

Duveiller, G., Defourny, P., Desclée, B., & Mayaux, P. (2008). Deforestation in Central Africa: Estimates at regional, national and landscape levels by advanced processing of systematically-distributed Landsat extracts. Remote Sensing of Environment, 112(5), 1969-1981.

Foley, J.A., DeFries, R., Asner, G.P., Barford, C., Bonan, G., Carpenter, S.R., Chapin, F.S., Coe, M.T., Daily, G.C., Gibbs, H.K., & Helkowski, J.H. (2005). Global consequences of land use. Science, 309(5734), 570-574.

Fombe, L.F., & Balgah, S.N. (2010). The urbanization process in Cameroon: Patterns, implications and prospects. Nova Science Publishers.

Houghton, R.A. (2003). Revised estimates of the annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes in land use and land management 1850–2000. Tellus B, 55(2), 378-390.

Lal, R. (2001). Soil degradation by erosion. Land Degradation & Development, 12(6), 519-539.

Lambin, E.F., Geist, H.J., & Lepers, E. (2003). Dynamics of land-use and land-cover change in tropical regions. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 28(1), 205-241.

Mayaux, P., Bartholomé, E., Fritz, S., & Belward, A. (2004). A new land‐cover map of Africa for the year 2000. Journal of Biogeography, 31(6), 861-877.

Oke, T.R. (1982). The energetic basis of the urban heat island. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 108(455), 1-24.

Tegegne, Y.T., Lindner, M., Fobissie, K., & Kanninen, M. (2016). Evolution of drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in the Congo Basin forests: Exploring possible policy options to address forest loss. Land Use Policy, 51, 312-324.